Anatomy Atlases(tm) : A digital library of anatomy information

Home | About | FAQ | Reviews | Search

Anatomy Atlases: Illustrated Encyclopedia of Human Anatomic Variation: Opus II: Cardiovascular System: Arteries: Heart

Illustrated Encyclopedia of Human Anatomic Variation: Opus II: Cardiovascular System: Arteries

Heart

Ronald A. Bergman, PhD
Adel K. Afifi, MD, MS
Ryosuke Miyauchi, MD

Peer Review Status: Internally Peer Reviewed


Congenital cardiac anomalies are seen in 0.6% of live births and in 2.0% of stillbirths.

Common cardiac anomalies are: a) atresia or stenosis of the pulmonary trunk or aorta, b) defective closure of septal openings, c) defective closure of the ductus arteriosus, d) reverse rotation of the heart and, e) mirror imaging. Situs inversus are examples of d and e.

Incomplete closure of the foramen ovale, "probe patency," is common (~25% of adult hearts) and may be regarded as a normal variant rather than an abnormality. The foramen is closed physiologically but patent anatomically. In one study of 2648 subjects, probe patency was found in 23.1%. There is virtually no sex difference (25.5% occurrence in females and 21.4% in male subjects). Schaefer, et al. (1915), reported the foramen ovale to be patent in 24.2% of adult males and 29% of females; in children under one year it was patent in 94%, and between one and five years in 52%. The most common arrangement is an oblique slit, from a pinhead size to 1 cm. in diameter, under the greatest convexity of the anulus. This slit may be blind, even being 2 cm. in length or it may open into the left atrium . There may be a blind slit on the left side and none on the right side; less commonly there are two blind slits. Nañagas (1921) found three types of foramina in a study of 107 subjects: circular (the smallest type) (53.4%), Ovale (27.6%) and triangular (the largest type) (20%).

A foramen may exist in the atrial septum above and behind the fossa ovalis.and may co-exist with a persistent foramen ovale. Deficiencies in the septum below and in front of the fossa ovalis are more common, but are still rare. These represent persistences of the foramen primum. The foramen lies in front of the anterior limb of the anulus, its anterior boundry being formed by the upper parts of the aortic cusp of the mitral valve and the anterior and septal cusps of the tricuspid valve. The foramen is interatrial. It is usually present when the right pulmonary veins open into the superior vena cava.

The fossa ovalis varies in size, but seldom exceeds 3.5 cm. in its maximum diameter.

The coronary sinus may be doubled.

The coronary sinus may be absent or closed or drain into the left atrium (via a left superior vena cava, veing of Marhall). See coronary sinus below.

A heart with a more or less bifid apex and three-chambered hearts in adult subjects have been reported.

Cor triatrium, a heart with a doubled left atrium, has been reported.

The heart valves may be composed of accessory cusps which vary in size. The posterior (inferior) cusp may be divided in the right atrioventricular valve, and the bicuspid valve of the left ventricle may have an anterior or posterior cusp or both.

The aortic and pulmonary valves may present with two cusps in front and one behind. The aortic valve may be composed of two to four cusps rather than the usual three. The mitral valve may be doubled.

The (right) superior vena cava may be joined to the left atrium. Other anomalous vascular connections of the heart will be found in subsequent sections.

The heart normally weighs from 280 to 389 grams in males and 250 to 384 in females although these values are bound to change in our modern society.

Heterotopic renal tissue has been reported in the heart.

The pericardium may be partially or completely absent (frequency 2/13,000 necropsies or in about 0.015%). A cases of agenesis was first described by Columbus in 1559.

The incisura apicis cordis may be so deep that the apex appears doubled or bifid; this occured in three of 106 cases (Théremin) and in another study, 4 of 631 cases (Abbot). The incisura is the junction point of the anterior and posterior longitudinal grooves that end in a small depression at the right of the apex.of the heart.

The diameter of the the superior vena cava varies from 18 to 22 mm., and the inferior vena cava is larger and varies between 27 to 36 mm. at their junction with the right atrium.

The orifice of the inferior vena cava is partially covered by a semilunar fold, the Eustachian valve. The valve in the adult heart is varying in height and in a very few instances exceeds 1 cm. Very often it is perforated and it may present appearing as a network or a delicate trellis.

The circular opening of the coronary sinus is flanked laterally by the Thebesian valve, or the valve of the coronary sinus, which is very variable in size and shape. Most commonly it is smaller than the coronary opening and is semilunar in shape. Very frequently it is perforated or in the form of a network but may also appear as a few delicate strands attached to the lateral surface of the Eustachian valve and bridging across the the sub-Eustachian diverticulum.

The valve of the coronary sinus has been seen doubled. The opening of the coronary sinus is occasionally on the bottom of a small fossa.

The level of the orifices of the coronary arteries in the sinuses of Valsalva varies in both vertical and horizontal directions. Most commonly they lie at the level of the free edge of the cusp, but they may be above this level and it has been found to be below it in some instances. While most commonly at the center of the sinus they are most often found nearer its anterior margin.

The two coronary arteries have been seen arising from a common trunk or both arise from one sinus of Valsalva.

Not infrequently the number of coronary arteries is increase to three and in a few instances four have been found. The supplementary vessels are generally small and may be overlooked but Symmers found 40 in 100 hearts examined. They arise from the aorta near the main coronary trunk but appear to have acquired an independent origin. They occur on both sides, but are more frequent on the right side.

In very rare instances an additional coronary artery has been found arising from the pulmonary trunk.

Congenital Variations of the Heart with the Maximum Recorded Life Span based on 1000 cases in the Bibliography of M.E. Abbott. (Bauer, D. deF. and E.C. Astbury. (1944) Am. Heart J. 27:688-732. (slightly modified and updated by present authors).

Disease or Condition

No. Cases

Maximum Life Span Recorded

1. Anomalies of Pericardium

a. Pericardial defects

30

75 yrs.

b. Pericardial diverticulum

6

52 yrs.

2. Displacements of the Heart

a. Ectopis Cordis

7

15 mo

b. Isolated dextrocardia

i. Without inversion chambers

8

49 yrs.

ii. With inversion chambers

10

33 yrs.

c. Dextrocardia with situs inversus

11

58 yrs.

d. Incomplete heterotaxy

5

6.5 yrs.

e. Dextroposition cordis

3

41 yrs.

3. Anomalies of the Heart as a Whole

a. Bifid apex

4

Adult (40 yrs)

b. Diverticulum

3

7 mo.

c. Primary congenital hypertrophy

15

14 mo.

d. Congenital rhabdomyoma

17

35 yrs.

e. Congenital heart block

3

20 mo.

4. Anomalous Septa or Chordae

a. Anomalous septa

i. In left auricle

10

48 yrs.

ii. In right auricle

4

33 yrs.

iii. In vertricles

3

39 yrs.

b. Anomalous Chordae

i. In left auricle

7

84 yrs.

ii. In right auricle

5

69 yrs.

iii. In ventricles

6

76 yrs.

iv. In aorta

5

76 yrs.

5. Defects of Interauricular Septum

a. Patent foramen ovale

40

62 yrs.

b. Defects auricular septum above

10

64 yrs.

c. Defects auricular septum below

18

46 yrs.

d. Multiple defects, auricular septum

5

52 yrs.

e. Premature closure foramen ovale

3

32 yrs.

6. Defects of Interventricular Septum

a. At base without dextroposition

50

44 yrs.

b. Defects elsewhere or multiple

5

79 yrs.

c. Aneurysms of pars membranacea

7

60 yrs.

7. Complete Defects of Cardiac Septa

a. Cor trioculare biventriculare

5

31 yrs. (39, 56 yrs.)

b. Cor trioculare biatriatum

13

24 yrs. (35, 56 yrs.)

c. Cor bioculare

9

8.5 mo.

d. Incomplete double heart

10

4.75 mo.

8. Defects in Aortic Septum

a. Persistent truncus (complete defect)

21

25 yrs.

b. Communication between aorta and pulmonary artery

10

48 yrs.

c. Congenital aneurysm of right aortic sinus

12

41 yrs.

9. Transposition of Arterial Trunks

a. Dextroposition of aorta

i. Aorta from left ventricle, ventricular septum entire

1

39 yrs.

ii. Aorta from both ventricles

7

48 yrs.

iii. Aorta from right ventricle

3

13 mo.

iv. Aorta from right ventricle, double conus

1

Newborn

b. Complete transposition

i. Closed ventricular septum

32

11 yrs.

ii. Defect of ventricular septum

17

4 yrs.

c. Partial transposition

16

20 yrs.

d. Corrected transposition

4

24 yrs.

10. Pulmonary Stenosus

a. With closed septa

9

45 yrs.

b. With patent foramen ovale, closed ventricular septum

16

57 yrs.

c. With closed foramen ovale, defect ventricular septum

51

60 yrs.

d. With patent foramen ovale and defect ventricular septum

34

28 yrs.

11. Pulmonary Atresia

a. With closed ventricular septum

10

20 yrs.

b. With closed foramen ovale, defect ventricular septum

12

29 yrs.

c. With patent foramen ovale, defect ventricular septum

18

6 yrs.

12. Pulmonary Insufficiency or Dilatation

a. Valvular insufficiency

2

64 yrs.

b. Congenital dilatation pulmonary artery

6

59 yrs.

13. Aortic Stenosis and Atresia

a. Subaortic stenosis

12

58 yrs.

b. Aortic stenosis

11

24 yrs.

c. Aortic atresia

12

25 days.

14. Anomalies of Semilunar Cusps

a. Supernumerary cusps

i. Of pulmonary valve

8

80yrs.

ii. Of aortic valve

2

41 yrs.

b. Reduced number

i. Bicuspid pulmonary valve

1

20 yrs.

ii Bicuspid aortic valve

32

68 yrs.

15. Tricuspid and Mitral Stenoses

a. Tricuspid stenosis

3

28 yrs.

b. Tricuspid atresia

16

56 yrs.

c. Mitral stenosis

6

27 yrs.

d. Mitral atresia

6

3.5 yrs.

16. Anomalies of Auriculoventricular Cusps

a. Double orifices

i Of tricuspid orifice

1

43 yrs.

ii Of mitral orifice

8

71 yrs.

b. Insufficiency or defect

i Of tricuspid valve

5

20 yrs.

ii Of mitral valve

2

14 yrs.

17. Patent Ductus Arteriosus

a. Simple patency

92

66 yrs.

b.So-called aneurysm

13

40 yrs.

18. Coarctation of the Aorta

a Adult type.

70

70 yrs.

b Infantile type

9

9 mo.

c. Pulmonary artery forms descending aorta

6

5.5 yrs.

19. Hypoplasia of Aortic Arch

2

20 yrs.

20. Anomalies of the Aortic Arch

a. Double aortic arch

5

87 yrs.

b. Right aortic arch

14

61 yrs.

c. Right subclavian from descending aorta

5

44 yrs.

d. Left subclavian from ductus arteriosus or pulmonary artery

1

5 yrs.

e. Common brachiocephalic trunk

2

38 yrs.

21. Anomalous Coronary Arteries

a. Origin from pulmonary artery

8

61 yrs.

b. Right coronary into coronary sinus

1

54 yrs.

c. Aneurysm right coronary

1

46 yrs.

22. Anomalous Pulmonary Arteries

5

65 yrs.

23. Anomalies of Great Veins

a. Of systemic vein (persistent left superior vena cava)

9

61 yrs

b. Of pulmonary veins

4

86 yrs.

24. Congenital Arteriovenous Aneurysm

6

35 yrs.

Note of Interest: According to Hyrtl, the name valve was first used for the heart valves by Benedictus; the Greeks named them hymenes, while Vesalius named them membranae.

Galen compared the arterial valves to the letter C in shape, while Heister introduced the name semilunar for them. The Greeks named the atrio-ventricular valves triglochines, and Galen trisulcas, because of their resemblance to a three-pointed spear head. Vesalius suggested the name mitral valve for the left atrio-ventricular valve because of its resemblance to a Bishop's mitre (hat). From Schaefer, et al., Quain's Anatomy, 1915.

Image 403

Transposition

Image 253, Image 256, Image 405

Mitral Valves

Image 114, Image 161, See Image 405, Image 440,

Ductus Arteriosus

Image 103


References

Abbott, F.C (1904) Case of abnormal arrangement of aortic valves. J. Anat. Physiol. 28:103.

Anson, B.J., Ed. (1966) Morris' Human Anatomy, 12th ed., The Blakiston Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Arey, L.B. (1974) Developmental Anatomy, 7th ed., Revised. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.

Arnaud, H. (1891) Présentation d'un cas d'anomalie de position du coeur. Soc. Biol. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances et Memoirès 43:4-8.

Baptista, B.V. (1931) Des valvules sigmoides aoetiques. Assoc. Anatomistes Comptes Rendus. 26:42-46.

Bauer, D. de F. and E.C. Astbury. (1944) Congenital variations of the heart with the maximum recorded life span based on 1000 cases in the bibliography of M.E. Abbott. Am. Heart J. 27:688-752.

Bauer, K. (1896) Ein Fall von Verdoppelung der oberen Hohlvene und ein Fall von Einmündung des Sinus coronarius in den linken Vorhof. Morphologische Arbeiten 6:221-238.

Beck, B. (1846) Uber transposition der Aorta und Arteria pulmonalis in dem Herzen eines neugebornen Mädchens. Archiv für Physiologische Heilkunde. 5:288-295.

Beck, C.S. (1931) Congenital deficiency of the pericardium. Arch. Surg. 22:282-288.

Bedford, D.E. and J. Parkinson. (1936) Right-sided aortic arch (situs inversus arcus aortae). Br. J. Radiol. 9:776-798.

Benvenisti , -. (1870) Le razze umane presenti e preistoriche, studiate specialmente dal lato delle anomalie del sistema vascolare. Gazetta Medica Italiana Provincie Venete 13:238-242.

Bergman, R.A., Thompson, S.A. and F.A. Saadeh. (1988) Absence of coronary sinus. Anat. Anz. 166:9-12.

Bernard, -. Anomalie cardiaque, orifice pulmonaire muni de quarte valvules. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris LV(6):426.

Birmingham, A. (1893) Extreme anomaly of the heart and great vessels. J. Anat. Physiol. 27:139-150.

Blackwell-Morison, A. (1928) Cardiac malformation with vascular anomalies. J. Anat. 62:227-231.

Borst, -. (1905) Cor triatratum. Zentralbl. Allg. Pathol. und Pathol. Anat. 16:812.

Boyd, G.I. (1937-38) Anomalous heart. J. Anat. 72:299-300.

Bradley, S.M. (1873) Tricoelian human heart. Br. Med. J. 1:33-34.

Brüninghausen, A. (1880) über zwei Falle von Anomalie der Pulmonalarterienklappen. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 82:200-202.

Buchanan, G. (1856) Malformation of the heart. Cyanosis. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 8:149-150.

Byron, F. (1948) Ectopia cordis. Report of a case with attempted operative correction. J. Thoracic Surg. 17:717-722.

Cameron, A.H.F. (1871) Note of a case of peculiar malformation of the heart and great vessels. J. Anat. Physiol. 5:339-341.

Campbell, K. (1896) Accessory segment in the pulmonary valve. J. Anat. Physiol. 30:347-348.

Capitan, L. (1898) Un cas d'inversion du coeur exclusivement. Soc. Biol., Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances et Mémoires. 50:1104-1105.

Caron, K.H., Hernandez, R.J., Goble, M. and R. Beekman. (1991) MR imaging of double chambered left ventricle. J. Comp. Assist. Tomography. 15(1):140-142.

Chaffey, W.C. (1885) Congenital malformation of heart, with persistent left duct of Cuvier. Trans Pathol. Soc. Lond. 36:175-176.

Charnal, -. (1856) Anomalies du coeur et de la circulation genérale. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XXXI(11):435-444.

Charrin, -. et -. Lenoir (1890) Maladie blue; communication interventriculaire; absence d'artère pulmonaire; quatre artères bronchiques. Soc. Biol. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances et Mémoires 42:598-599.

Chase, M.R. (1916) Congenital deficiency of the pericardium. J. Anat. Physiol. 50:299-302.

Cheselden, W. (1713) XXXVIII. Some anatomical observations. Philosophical Transactions, London. 28:282.

Cooper, G. (1836) Malformation of the thoracic viscera consisting of imperfect development of the right lung, and transposition of the heart. London Medical Gazette 18:600.

Correia, M. (1933) Contribution a l'étude de la circulation artèrielle du coeur. Assoc. Anatomistes, Comptes Rendus 28:200-204.

Delitzin, S. (1892) Beobachtungen über die vierte Halbmondklappe in der Arteria pulmonalis. Arch. Anat. Physiol. Wissen. Med. 1892:107-112.

Delmas, A. et E. Catritsis. (1949) Le poids du coeur. Assoc. Anatomistes, Comptes Rendus 36:176-181.

Doerr, W. (1950) Morphogenese und korrelation chirurgisch wichtiger angeborener Herzfehler. Erg. Chirur. Orthop. 36:1-92.

Dry, T.J., Edwards, J.E., Parker, R.L., Burchell, H.B., Rogers, H.M. and A.H. Bulbulian. (1948) Congenital anomalies of the heart and great vessels. Clinico-pathologic study of 132 cases. Postgrad. Med. 4:231-263.

Dubrueil, J.M. (1847) Des Anomalies Arterielles. Bailliere, Paris.

Durand, -. (1874) Quatrième valvule à l'artère pulmonaire. Lyon Méd. 15:499.

Duvernoy, E. (1879) Anomalie du nombre des valvvules sigmoïdes de l'aorte. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris VIL(1):105-106.

Ebstein, W. (1866) über einen sehr selten Fall von Insufficienz der Valvula tricuspidalis bedingt durch eine angeborene hochgradige Missbildung derselben. Arch Anat. Physiol. Wissen. Med. 1866:238-258.

Edwards, J.E. (1960) Congenital malformations of the heart and great vessels. pp. 260-496. In Gould, S.E., Ed. Pathology of the Heart, 2nd ed., C C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Edwards, J.E., Dry, T.J., Parker, R.L., Burchell, H.B., Wood, E.H. and A.H Bulbulian (1954) An Atlas of Congenital Anomalies of the heart and Great Vessels. CC Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Edwards, F.R., Farquhar, H.G., Hay, J.D. and G.J. Rees. (1955) Surgical treatment of artial septal defects. Br. Med. J. 2:1463-1469.

Fawcett, E. and J.V. Blachford (1901) The frequency of an opening between the right and left auricles at the seat of the foetal foramen ovale. J.Anat. Physiol. 35:67-70.

Geffrier, -. (1881) Malformation congénitale du cœur. - Absence de cloison interauriculaire. - Anomalie de la veine cave inférieure. La France Médicale 28:254-262.

Gegenbaur, C. (1888) Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen. 3rd ed. Ed. V. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig.

Geipel, P. (1903) Missbildungen der Tricuspidalis. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 171:298-334.

Gladstone, R.J. and C.H. Reismann. (1916) Two examples of cardiac malformation. J. Anat. Physiol. 50:228-238.

Greenfield, W.S. (1876) Congenital malformation of the aortic valves. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 27:110-113.

Greenfield, W.S. (1876) Double mitral valve. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 27:128-129.

Griffith, T.W. (1903) An example of a peculiar malformation of the tricuspid valve. J. Anat. Physiol. 37:251-254.

Gruber, W. (1866) Weitere Fäll von Einmündung der Vena hemiazyga in das Atrium dextrum cordis beim Menschen. Arch. Anat. Physiol. Wissen. Med. 1866:224-230.

Gubler, M. (1861) Coeur d'adulte avec persistance du trou de Botal et communication des deux ventricles a travers la cloison interventriculaire. Soc. Biol. Comptes Rendus des Séances et Memoires 13:279-281.

Hale, -. (1853) Case of a heart with a single ventricle, with observations on the production of cyanosis. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 4:87-96.

Henle, J. (1868) Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen. Von Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig.

Hickman, -. (1869) Malformation of heart; 1) transposition of auricles and of aorta; absence of pulmonary artery; patent foramen ovale; communicating ventricles; with lateral transposition of principal viscera; cyanosis. 2) Transposition of viscera. Malformation of heart; pulmonary veins from right lung entering left auricle and from left lung entering right auricle. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 20:88-92, 93-98.

Huber, G.C., Ed. (1930) Piersol's Human Anatomy, 9th ed., L.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.

Hueck, O. (1950) Eine seltene Tricuspidalismissbildung. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin Med. 319:247-264.

Humphreys, II., G.H. (1948) The surgery of congenital heart disease. Surg. Clin. North Am. 1948:353-365.

Hutinel, -. (1874) Anomalie de l'orfice aortique. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XLIX(2):128-130.

Jaffe, K. (1921) Fall von Missbildung des Herzens und der Gefasse. Z. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch. 60:411-437.

Jex-Blake, A.J. (1926) Obstruction of the oesophagus caused by a persistent ductus arteriosus. Lancet 2:542-544.

Keith, A. (1907) Partial deficiency in the pericardium. J. Anat. Physiol. 41:6-7.

Keith, A. (1912) Six specimens of abnormal heart. J. Anat. Physiol. 46:211-214.

Knape, -. (1912) Eine seltene Herzmissbildung bei Situs inversus abdominalis. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 209:473-476.

Kopsch, F. (1908) Rauber's Lehrbuch und Atlas der Anatomie des Menschen. Georg Thieme, Leipzig.

Kristin, A.D., Evans, J.M. and A.E. Brigulio. (1955) Ebstein's anomaly of the tricuspid valve: Angiocardiographic diagnosis. Am. Heart J. 50:634-640.

Labunowa, T. (1967) Cor biloculare in man. Folia Morphol., Warsaw 26:154-160.

Landouzy, -. (1874) Affection cardiaque. Absence d'une des valvules sigmoïde. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XLIX(2):188.

Lane, W.A. (1887) Rare abnormality of the large arteries of the heart. J. Anat. Physiol. 21:97-100.

Lang, F.J. (1921) Zur Kenntnis der angeborenen Herzbeuteldefekte. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 230:608-621.

Latarjet, A. (1948) Testut's Traite d'Anatomie Humaine, 9th ed., G. Doin & Cie., Paris.

Lauenstein, C. (1876) Varietät der Klappen des rechten Atrium. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 68:632-633.

Lawrence, T.W.P. and D. Nabarro (1902) A case of congenital malformation of the heart, with abnormalities of the abdominal viscera: Absence of spleen, absence of hepatic section of inferior vena cava. J. Anat. Physiol. 36:63-75.

Lebec, -. (1874) Absence du péricarde par arrêt de development. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XLIX(6):455-457.

Lebert, -. (1863) über einen Fall von Ursprung der aorta aus dem rechten Ventrikel neben der A. pulmonalis mit Offenbleiben des Eirundenloches, sowie der Kammerscheidewand, ohne Cyanose, und Erhaltung des lebens bis zum zwanzigsten Jahre. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin Med. 28:405-414.

Lees, D.B. (1880) Case of malformation of the heart, with transposition of the aorta and pulmonary artery. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 31:58-62.

Lind, J. (1950) Heart volume in normal infants. Acta Radiol. [Suppl.] 82:1-127.

Lowenthal, H. (1900) über angeborene Dextrocardie ohne Situs viscerum inversus; Fehlen der Arteria pulmonalis, mit Ductus Botalli als arterielles Gefass. Lücke im Septum ventriculorum. Kleiner linker Ventrikel. Z. Klin. Med. 41:130-136.

Mann, M. (1889) Cor triloculare biatriatum. Eine entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studie. Beitr. Pathol. Anat. Allg. Pathol. 6:485-510.

Martin, -. (1874) Absence d'une des valvules sigmoïdes de l'aorte. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XLIX(7):572.

Martin, C.P. (1931) Anatomical notes. A case of congenital abnormality of the heart with apparently an unusual abnormality of the great vessels. J. Anat. 65:395-398.

Martin, H. (1877) Coeure à un seul ventricle. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris LII:411-444.

Martinotti, G. e G. Sperino (1884) Des anomalies numériques des valvules sémi-lunaires, aortiques et pulmonaires. Arch. Ital. Biol. 6:181-193.

Maunoir, -. (1874) Fracture du col du femur; absence de l'une des valvules sigmoïdes de l'aorta. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XLIX(5):407-408.

Meckel, -. (1805) Ueber die Bildungsfehler des Herzens. Archiv für die Physiologie 6(B,III):549-610.

Meyer, H. (1857) über die Transposition der aus dem Herzen hervortretenden grossen Arterienstämme. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 12:364-385.

Michaelsohn, H. (1920) Einmündung aller Lungenvenen in die persistierende Vena cava superior sinistra und Cor biloculare bei einem 21jährigen Manne. Frankfurter Z. Pathol. 23:222-226.

Mierzwa, J. and T. Kozielec (1975) Variation of the anterior cardiac veins and their orifices in the right atrium in man. Folia Morphol., Warsaw 34:125-133.

Moller, J.H. and J.E. Edwards. (1965) Interruption of aortic arch. Anatomic patterns and associated cardiac malformations. Am. J. Roentgenol. 95:557-572.

Monteiro, H.B. (1918) Multiple anomalies of the human heart. J. Anat. 52:335-342.

Moore, R.L. (1925) Congenital deficiency of the pericardium. Arch. Surg. 11:765-777.

Mouchet, A. et A. Noureddine. (1926) L 'artère du piler anterieur du ventricle droit ou artère de la branche droite du faisceau de His. Assoc. Anatomistes, Comptes Rendus. 21:415-421.

Moutard-Martin, -. (1874) Rétrécissement congénital de l'aorte; Atherone; Hypertrophie du coeur; absence d'une des valvules sigmoïdes. Bulletins et Mem. de la Société Anatomique de Paris XLIX(11):737-742.

Murray, A. (1768) Anatomische Bermerkungen bei einer sonderbaren Stellung einiger grosserer Pulsaderstämme, unweit des Herzens, wie man solche an einen Leichnam gefunden had. Königl. Vetensk. Handling for aor 1768. 30:85. Abhandlungen der Königl Schwedisch Acad. der Wissenschaften. Bd. 30. Stockholm.

Nañagas, J.C. (1921) On the patency of the foramen ovale in Filipino newborn children. Anat. Rec. 21:339-342.

Nizankowski, C, Rajchel, Z. and M. Ziólkowski. (1976) Cor biloculare in man. Folia Morphol., Warsaw. 35:55-65.

Nizankowski, C., Ziolowski, M., Marek, J. and J. Rabczynski. (1982) Fossa ovalis of the interatrial septum in humans. Folia Morphol., Warsaw 41:413-418.

Notes, M. (1870) Adult heart without ventricular septum. Br. Med. J. 2:190.

Osemlak, J. and M. Stelmasiak (1975) Variation of shape and size of the human heart in various periods of life. Foloa Morphol., Warsaw. 34:383-394.

Osler, W. (1880) Cases of cardiac abnormalities. Ann Report; Montreal General Hospital 1:177-192.

Paltauf, R. (1901) Dextrocardie und Dextroverso cordis. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 14:1032-1036.

Pan, N. (1935-36) Remnants of the venous valves in the adult heart. J. Anat. 70:435-438.

Papilian, V. und R. Rubin. (1923-24) Der Zusammenhang des Sinus venosus mit der Vena cava sinistra. Anat. Anz. 57:276-277.

Parsons, F.G. and A. Keith. (1898) Seventh Report of the Committee of Collective Investigation of the Anatomical Society of Great Britian and Ireland, for the year 1896-97. Foramen ovale. J. Anat. Physiol. 32:165-172.

Patten, B. (1931) The closure of the foramen ovale. Am. J. Anat. 48:19-44.

Peacock, -. (1860) Malformation of the heart; absence of ductus arteriosus; small size of pulmonary artery; aorta arising from both ventricles; irregular course of the aorta, etc. Trans. Path. Soc. Lond. 11:40-43.

Peacock, -. (1870) Two specimens of malformation of the heart. Br. Med. J. 2:473.

Ranier, F.J. (1908) Ein Fall von missbildung der Aortenklappen. Internat. Monatschr. Anat. Physiol. 24:246.

Reddingius, R.A. (1889) Een geval van dextrocardie met transpositie van alle groote vaten. Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 1:417-424.

Reid, D.G. (1912) A case of multiple heart anomalies. J. Anat. Physiol. 46:86-88.

Restivo, A., Smith, A., Wilkinson, J.L. and R.H. Anderson. (1990) Normal variations in the relationship of the tricuspid valve to the membranous septum in the human heart. Anar. Rec. 226:258-263.

Ronka, E.K.F. and C.F. Tessmer. (1944) Congenital absence of the pericardium. Am. J. Pathol. 20:137-140.

Sahinoglu, K., Cassell, M.D., Miyauchi, R. and R.A. Bergman. (1994) Human persistent left superior vena cava with doubled coronary sinus. Annals of Anatomy 176:451-454.

Sanders, G. (1893) Case of congenital malformation of the heart; with transposition of the aorta and pulmonary artery. J. Anat. Physiol. 27:464-473.

Sandifort, E. (1772) Observatio de foetu monstroso, cujus viscera abdominalia omnia una cum corde extra corpus propendebant, communicata. Acta Helvetica Physico-Mathematico - Anatomico Botanico Medica 7:56-61.

Schaefer, E.A., Symington, J. and T.H. Bryce, Eds. (1915) Quain's Anatomie, 11th ed., Longmans, Green and Co., London.

Scheiber, S.H. (1863) über einen Fall von Obliteration der Aorta, entsprechend dem Ductus arteriosus Botalli. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 26:218-220.

Schröder, R. (1911) über Anomalien der Pulmonalvenen, zugleich ein Beitrag zum Cor biloculare. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. 205:122-138.

Seib, G.A. (1934) Incidences of the patent foramen ovale cordis in adult American Whites and American Negroes. Am. J. Anat. 55:511-525.

Shafiroff, R.G.P. (1951) Congenital absence of the pericardium. J. Thoracic Surg. 21:30-33.

Simpson, F.O. (1898) Congenital abnormalities of the heart in the insane. J. Anat. Physiol. 32:679-686.

Southworth, H. and C.S. Stephenson. (1938) Congenital defects of the pericardium. Arch. Intern. Med. 61:223-240.

Sozinskey, T.S. (1883) A case of transposition of the heart and other organs, accompanied with bronchial catarrh. The Medical and Surgical Reporter 48 (no.1):1-2.

Spitzer, A. (1923) Uber den Bauplan des normalen und missbildeten Herzens. Versuch einer phylogenetischen Theorie. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 243:81-272.

Stokes, A. (1909) Abnormal position of the heart and great vessels associated with the transposition of the viscera. J. Anat. Physiol. 43:301-307.

Sunderland, S. and R.J. Wright-Smith. (1944) Congenital pericardial defects. Br. Heart J. 6:167-175.

Taussig, H.B. (1960) Congenital Malformations of the Heart, 2nd ed., Harvard University Press., Cambridge.

Thévenet, A. and J.B. Prioton. (1956) Le cloisonnement du coelome péricardique ses anomalies. Assoc. Anatomistes, Comptes Rendus. 43:796-806.

Tode, -. (1787) Ein seltenes Naturspiel. Von dem Berfasser dieser Bibliothek. Medicinishchirurgische Bibliothek 10:407-409.

Tooth, H.H. (1884) Case of origin of the aorta from the infundibulum, and of the pulmonary artery from the sinus of the right ventricle. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 35:127-129.

Toupet, -. (1883) Cyanose cardiaque congénitale. Persistance du trou de Botal et rétrècissement de l'artère pulmonaire. Oreillette gauche rudimentaire. Aorte trés large s'ouvrant également dans le ventricule droit et dans le ventricile gauche. Hypertrophie du ventricule droit. Archives de Tocologie des Maladies des Femmes et des Enfants Nouveau-Nes 10:495-497.

Troyer, J.R. (1961) A multiple anomaly of the human heart and great veins. Anat. Rec. 139:509-513.

Veiga, A. (1913) Anomalias arteriaes. Gazeta dos Hospitais do Porta 7:65-74.

Valleix, -. (1835) Transposition irrégulière des organes, de droite à gauche; absence de la cloison inter-auriculaire du coeur; ventricle pulmonaire rudimentaire, et ne communiquant pas avec les oreilletes; cloison inter-ventriculaires incomplète deux veines cava supérieures... Arch. Gen. Med. 8:78-91.

Vehsemeyer, -. (1897) Ein Fall von congenitaler Dexiokardie zugleich ein Beitrag zur Verwerthung der Röntgenstrahlen im Gebiete der inneren Medicin. Deutsche Med. Wochenschr. 23:180-181.

Vincenzi, L. (1886) Cuore Semplice. Archivo per le Scienze Mediche 9(13):283-306.

Walmsley, T. (1931) Transposition of the ventricles and the arterial stems. J. Anat. 65:528-540.

Walter, M. (1785) Sur les maladies du coeur. Nouveaux Memoires de l'Academie Royale des Sciences et Belles-lettres, Berlin. Anee 1785:57-66 und Taf. III.

White, W.H. (1885) Patent ductus arteriosus. Trans. Pathol. Soc. Lond. 36:182-183.

William, N. and A. Abrikossoff. (1911) Ein Herz mit linken Doppelvorhof. Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 203:404-420.

Wilson,J. (1798) A description of a very unusual formation of the human heart. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1798:346-356.

Wiltshire, J.G. (1881) A human heart on the right side of the body. Maryland Medical Journal 8 (No.13):319-320.

Winslow, R. (1882) A study of the malformations, variations, and anomalies of the circulatory apparatus in man. Annals of Anatomy and Surgery 6:213.

Wrba, H. (1954) Ein primitives Herz bei einem erwachsenen Menschen (persistenz frühembryonaler Herzformen). Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 324:662-670.

Wright, R.R., Anson, B.J. and H. Cleveland. (1948) The vestigial valves and the interatrial foramen of the adult human heart. Anat. Rec. 100:331-355.

Wurtz, K.G. and N.B. Powell. (1948) Two unusual vascular and cardiac anomalies. I. Vascular ring of the esophagus with patent ductus arteriosus. Origin of the left subclavian and carotid arteries. II. Persistent atrioventricular communis and aortic dextroposition with mongolism. J. Pediatr. 33:722-733.

Yater, W.M. (1929) Variations and anomalies of the venous valves of the right atrium of the human heart. Arch. Pathol. 7:418-441.

Young, A.H. (1907) Rare anomaly of the heart - a three chambered heart in an adult aged thirty-five years. J. Anat. Physiol. 41:190-197.

Young, A.H. and A. Robinson. (1907) Some malformations of the human heart. The Medical Chronicle S. 4, 14:96-106.

Section Top | Title Page


Home | About Us | FAQ | Reviews | Contact Us | Search

Anatomy Atlases is curated by Michael P. D'Alessandro, M.D. and Ronald A. Bergman, Ph.D.

Please send us comments by filling out our Comment Form.

All contents copyright © 1995-2024 the Author(s) and Michael P. D'Alessandro, M.D. All rights reserved.

"Anatomy Atlases", the Anatomy Atlases logo, and "A digital library of anatomy information" are all Trademarks of Michael P. D'Alessandro, M.D.

Anatomy Atlases is funded in whole by Michael P. D'Alessandro, M.D. Advertising is not accepted.

Your personal information remains confidential and is not sold, leased, or given to any third party be they reliable or not.

The information contained in Anatomy Atlases is not a substitute for the medical care and advice of your physician. There may be variations in treatment that your physician may recommend based on individual facts and circumstances.

URL: http://www.anatomyatlases.org/